Discussion, Findings & Conclusion
incl
Suggestions for Further Study
The Egyptian government has always
been quick to realise the significance of new communication
technologies. It was a world contender in radio
broadcasting, started the first multi-channel television
service in the Middle East, legalised satellite dishes
years before many of its neighbours, and provided open
access to the internet in 1996 without filtering.
At
the same time, legislation on freedom of expression has
become harsher,
making it punishable by two years in jail and / or a fine,
to offend a senior governmental official. Several journalists
are imprisoned for print offences, and courts with different
jurisdiction and appeal possibilities are used as suits
the government. President Mubarak has renewed the emergency
law throughout his 19 years in office. Publications still
need a governmental license, and the government can harass
publishers seemingly at will.
Satellite
technologies are, by their global nature, beyond each
individual government to control. The government has taken
a pragmatic approach to the new innovations, investing
in two satellites, ground stations, internet servers and
routing equipment. They have opened up for cellular- and
public phones and VSAT modules, all operated by private
entrepreneurs. None of these companies have a partnership
with the government, though the government do monitor
their services.
Satellite
technologies are used by a small proportion of
the Egyptian people. Though no accurate numbers exist
on satellite dishes, it is estimated that there are 800
000 in Egypt. There are 60 000 paid subscribers to the
internet, but with university and corporate usage,
the total number of users is estimated to be around 500
000. The two Mobile operators, MobiNil
and ClickGSM have together 900 000 subscribers.
All
the persons contacted in this paper used all of the above
technologies. The two Human Right's organisations in the
study, EOHR and LRRC, actively used several sources of
communication to spread information. Interviews on satellite
television, international radio, opposition press, news
agencies, newsletters, books, embassies, websites and
mailing lists were all used to inform the Egyptian people
about the organisation's work.
Many
of these channels (satellite television, international
radio, news agencies, and embassies)
are physically beyond the government's control. These
options were either not available,
or difficult to use, before satellite communication.
Findings
Satellite
Satellite television is receive only, and has limited
effect upon freedom of speech. International satellite
channels in general, and regional satellite channels in
particular have, however, had a great impact on terrestrial
television. Orbit, Showtime and Al-Jazira revolutionised
Middle Eastern news and general-interest programming,
which has forced Egyptian terrestrial broadcasting to
follow. Political and social issues left out in the past
is covered today.
Advanced
two-way satellite communication; such as VSAT applications,
are heavily controlled by the government. The custom's
authority carefully monitors imports, and a licence
is required for ownership. Yet it would be unreasonable
to assume that there is not a black market for this type
of technology, as indicated by one of the interviewees.
Internet
The internet is send and receive. All data goes through
a governmental server, but is not tampered with. The internet
was seen as the most significant means of communication,
since the economical barriers to presenting information
on the internet is far smaller than on satellite television.
All the organisations featured in this
study were featured on the internet, mostly with bi-lingual
sites. The more Arabic sites that appear on the internet,
the more significance it will carry.
Cellular
Mobile phones have increased freedom of speech, but the
technology has also made it easier for the government
to monitor. Users remove even the batteries when total
privacy is required. The government is on an almost of
course basis assumed to tap private and work phones. Emergency
law The emergency law is the single strongest obstacle
to free speech in Egypt. The government
can bypass any other law when applying the emergency law.
It is applied in all sectors, but used depending on case
and publicity.
Satellite
technology
The government in effect had no choice about allowing
satellite technology. The international properties of
the technology makes it available - irrespective of government
attitude. Examples from neighbouring countries confirm
this. The approach taken by the Egyptian government seems
to be to participate in the process in order to gain influence.
This policy is consistent with
the one for the printed media. Egypt's chief newspaper,
the Al-Ahram is widely respected even though it is governmentally
owned.
Conclusion
Satellite
technologies have increased freedom of speech in Egypt.
There is more freedom of speech in Egypt today than there
was ten years ago, despite a less tolerant attitude by
the Egyptian government towards freedom of expression.
Suggestions
for further study
This thesis dealt exclusively with the usage of satellite
technologies among organisations involved in communication.
The economical and educational barriers to satellite technology
prevent the majority of Egyptians a direct access.
How
much information gathered from satellite based technology
actually "trickles" down to the people without
access. Reports from neighbouring countries indicate that
some villages pool their resources and share one satellite
dish. How frequent is this practice in Egypt? What is
the impact?
Another
approach may be to do a survey on information sources
of a spectre of the Egyptian people. Since it is the upper
strata of society who have the economy and the knowledge
to use satellite technology, a study should pay particular
attention to groups that do not belong to this social
and economical segment.
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