Egypt has been in a state of emergency throughout Hosni Mubarak's presidency, giving the head of state wide executive powers. This task has long since been delegated to various government offices, most notably the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Information.

Broadcasting is a governmental monopoly. International publications are censored and occasionally banned. Domestic publications are not censored, but licensed in advance and libelled in posterior. Meanwhile the World is going through rapid changes. Globalisation has in the last decade forced Egypt to deregulate, albeit at its own pace. Satellite dishes are readily available, the Internet is uncensored and private mobile phone companies have been established.

The focus of the study will be placed on these forms of satellite technologies, and whether its usage diminishes governmental control over information.

Statement of the Problem
Satellite technology has increased freedom of speech in Egypt.

The problem will be investigated according to the usage among non-governmental groups of mobile phones, internet and satellite broadcasting. It is important to look at both sending and receiving information, as an increase in freedom of speech requires the audience to be able to share their newly gathered knowledge.

Research Questions
What is the spread of satellite dishes, internet and mobile phones in Egypt? Do opposition groups and NGOs use satellite technologies? Has Satellite telecommunications helped liberalise freedom of expression in Egypt?

Evaluation of the Research Questions
The nineties are reported by a number of independent analysts as a dark age for freedom of speech in Egypt. The Committee for the Protection of Journalists, an organisation monitoring free speech, named President Hosni Mubarak as one of the "top ten enemies of the press" in 1998. The International Press Institute echoed this, and introduced its annual country report with the words "Censorship was rife in Egypt this year".

The gloomy state of freedom of speech in Egypt is, however, not a new phenomenon. In 1966, when the first survey of Press Independence and Critical Ability (PICA) was conducted, Egypt was ranked among the most "oppressive nations" in the world. This was under the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser.

When the survey was repeated ten years later, with President Anwar Sadat at the helm, the results were the same. Last year, in 1999, Egypt was still ranked among the worst countries for press freedom. Mubarak, it seems, has not done much to improve freedom of expression. Egypt has kept a stable but oppressive hand on press freedom for most of its modern history. The limited range of television broadcasting, and the necessity of a publication to be physically present in the country, has greatly simplified the Egyptian government's monitoring task. Nationalisation of the media and controlling the borders has historically worked well, but the entrance of satellites has obscured this arrangement.

Egypt's dependence on international investors and tourism has forced the country to privatise much of its public sector. With it, the government has had to accept less control over its national resources. This includes the ability of the population to receive uncensored satellite television, mobile phones and the internet.

Though Egypt formally ranks among the worst nations for freedom of expression, the increased availability of independent news sources forces the government to present social and political information on its monopolised media outlets. The usage of satellite technologies is not yet widespread, and it is the aim of this thesis to explore how widespread the usage of the new opportunities is among dominant non-governmental groups or affiliations.

Operationalisation
Satellite communication is communication, voice, data or video, which use satellite for whole or part of the communication event. Usage of satellite technologies is end-user oriented, and includes Satellite broadcasting, Mobile phones and the internet. Mobile phones are based on a cellular system, but link to a satellite for international calls. The internet is linked to the landline telephone system, but link to a satellite for international websites. I therefore include them in the definition.

Freedom of speech was defined as the non-interference of the government in communication between individuals or organisations, while freedom of the press was defined as the non-interference of the government in publishing. Freedom of speech therefore includes freedom of the press, but not the other way round.

These definitions are slight modifications of the Freedom of Information Centres 1966 definition of freedom of the press, where a free press was defined as One in which newspapers, periodicals, news agencies, books, radio and television have absolute independence and critical ability, except for minimal libel and obscenity laws. The press has no concentrated ownership, marginal economic units or organised self-regulation.

The modifications were made in order to accommodate the situation in Egypt, where the society as a whole lives in a restricted environment. Examples include the emergency law, political affiliation and freedom of expression.

Modern communication equipment is expensive, and requires a threshold of technical know-how. Satellite television is read-only. Once the antenna has been set up, it is relatively easy to use, as it demands little inter-reaction from the user.The internet, on the other hand, is send and receive. It requires literacy, computer literacy and preferably English literacy as well.

Egypt, with a per capita income of USD $ 1 180, a 51 percent literacy rate and a 10 percent English literacy rate, does not fare well in this context. Only a few have the educational requirement for modern communication technologies, and even fewer can afford it. A selection of Non-governmental groups were therefore contacted.

The author assumed that organisations have a greater financial basis from which to make hardware investments, and that they possessed the required technological know-how. These organisations were also assumed to carry greater social impact than private individuals, due to their frequent media exposure and publication efforts.

Part of the thesis was to assess if and how the information gathered by the ones with access to satellite communication is trickled down to the rest of the population. Non governmental groups are political, civic or private organisations who are not members of the ruling National Democratic Party.The organisations were spread over different sectors in society, such as non-profit organisations, private enterprise and media.

Organisations included in the study Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) · Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights (EOHR) Hafez Abu Se'da; Secretary general · Legal Resource and Research Centre (LRRC) Amir Salem; Director Private satellite companies · Alkan Communication (Ahmed Nosseir group) Abdel Rahman Omar, Director · Space Communication Company (Orascom group) Hossam Ali, Chief engineer Private media companies · Cairo Times Hisham Kassem, Publisher

Organisations interviewed by other than the author: · Orascom Telecommunications Naguib Sawiris, Chairman and C.E.O. (Al Ahram) · Showtime Peter Einstein, Chief Executive Officer (TBS journal) · Orbit Alexander Zilo, Chief Executive Officer (TBS journal) Egyptian Radio and Television Union · Amin Bassiouni, Chairman and C.E.O. (TBS journal)

The organisations were selected on basis of size. The Egyptian Space Communication Company and Alkan are parts of the Orascom and Nosseir groups, respectively. These are among the largest enterprises in the country, and the only operators licensed to sell advanced satellite equipment in Egypt.

EOHR and LRRC both enjoy observer status with the African Commission on People's and Human Rights, and are frequently cited in the Egyptian media on human rights and free speech issues. It proved difficult to obtain comparative membership lists for NGOs, but the EOHR and LRRC are definitely among the most controversial when it comes to freedom of speech issues. Both organisations publish newsletters in two languages on a regular basis, which are distributed to members and others who show interest. EOHR is without doubt the most internationally known NGO, based on the international media coverage its leader, Hafez Abu Se'da received when he was charged by the Egyptian government earlier this year.

Cairo Times is the only independent weekly newsmagazine in English in Egypt. There is another newspaper, The Middle East Times, but this paper has chosen a far less confrontational stance against the government. I therefore chose to interview the publisher of Cairo Times, Mr. Hisham Kassem. Cairo Times have unsuccessfully been trying for over four years to get a domestic press license, but is still regarded by the government as a "foreign" publication, despite its publisher being Egyptian, its main office situated in Cairo and written for the Egyptian market. As a foreign publication, the Cairo Times are liable to censorship and occasional banning.

Orbit and Showtime are among the most popular satellite channels received in Egypt. Their respective comments have been included where relevant. The most controversial satellite channel in the region is perhaps the Al-Jazira, which broadcast from Qatar. While Jazira's programming remains controversial in the region, Hussein Amin commented to Egypt's Insight that Qatar's domestic broadcasting is much less controversial: "Jazira is one thing, but Qatari national TV is something completely different. It is worse than Egyptian TV"

The author failed to get in touch with any representatives from Al-Jazira, despite numerous attempts. The channel recently opened a branch office in the Media City in Cairo, and reportedly had agreed to an "Arab code of ethics."

Cairo is the most important media and communication centre in Egypt. Apart from being the capital, most media and telecommunication companies have their headquarters here. The country's largest NGO, the Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights, is situated in Cairo. Though specific results of the thesis will speak for Cairo alone, I assume that the found level of tolerance applies to the country as a whole.

Methodology
The aim of the thesis is to compare the perceived level of freedom of expression with media usage. Freedom of expression can take many forms, and is relevant for all organisations in the country. However, a bias might exist among governmental and National Democratic Party officials to avoid criticising the state they are employed by. I will therefore focus on the media usage and exposure among non-governmental or semi-private organisations.

John C. Merrill recommends interviews and content analysis to investigate the pluralism of media usage and exposure. He also recommends focusing on individuals. It does not really matter how many media outlets there are as long as the individual does not have an opportunity to receive them.

Fieldwork in Egypt is a difficult task. Aside from the language barrier, there is a difficulty in arranging, and an unwillingness to participate. Previous experience has taught me that though appointments are hard to get, people are very open once the opportunity to ask is present. The arena for satellite communication is not extensive. Estimates for satellite dishes in Egypt ranges from 800 000 and up, and there are 61 million people in the country. Only a few have access to the media, mobile and internet services.

The ones who can afford the satellite technologies, however, are among the most influential in Egypt. Media personnel, private or semi-private companies and NGOs can be seen as an alternate power-base to the government. It is the aim of this study to analyse the responses given, and find whether the Non-governmental organisations have increased their communication channels. The non-governmental groups were not selected by random, nor do they constitute a significant part of non-governmental groups in Egypt.

Conclusions in this study is therefore only valid for the organisations included in the study. The organisations are leaders in their field of specialisation, be it from the technical side or from the content side. The findings are therefore relevant for the research question, whether satellite communication has increased free speech in Egypt.

Results

Part I: Interviews

Al-Manyal, 4 April 2000. Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights (EOHR) Secretary General Hafez Abu Se'da

Telephone is the most important method of communication for the Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights. They use fax, email and cellular phones as well as extensive fieldwork. EOHR has noticed an increase in the volume of emails over the last year, and gets at least one human rights related email from within Egypt per day. The most important way of spreading information for the EOHR is through radio. BBC, Monte Carlo and Voice of America are widely listened to, and the Egyptian people have long since learned to trust the broadcasting in Arabic that comes from these stations.

After radio, the opposition press is seen as the most efficient information channel. In addition to these, EOHR operates a mailing list (email) to news agencies and embassies, and publish newsletters and reports (bilingual). Though not mentioning satellite television as a way of spreading information, Hafez Abu Se'da commented later that "I am known in Egypt because of satellite channels outside Egypt". When he was charged with receiving foreign funding while in Paris in March 1999, he did an interview for the Qatar based Al-Jazira channel, and received "a lot" of responses as a result. In all he has done ten interviews for satellite television, including Orbit and ANN. EOHR does not use satellite television at the offices, but Hafez Abu Se'da has a satellite receiver at home, where he in particular follow the English speaking CNN and BBC and the Arabic ANN and Al-Jazira.

Freedom of speech Abu Se'da: I am sure that both the EOHR phones and his home phones are being monitored. The media - including the opposition and the independent press - are being "coerced" by selective distribution of government advertising. The government pays particular attention to control the editors.

Heliopolis, 19 April 2000 Legal Resource and Research Centre (LRRC) Amir Salem, Secretary General

LRRC uses telephone, fax, email, Internet and their homepage in addition to their publishing. They issue two newspapers - People's rights and Women's rights - and have published 47 books in the last 10 years. Radio is used when they "come and interview us"

Freedom of speech Salem: We are in doubt whether our phones are tapped. We say so, but we have no access to control this. This is the same for everybody. Television is totally controlled by the government. They don't understand. It is not only the opposition that is banned. Even civil society and intellectuals are not shown. I don't know about mobile phones and the Internet. Some say the government has the technology to monitor what is going on, but I don't know.

I do not agree with the reports that say Egypt is among the worst countries when it comes to freedom of speech. I think Egypt has marginalised the space for freedom of speech, but it is better than a number of other countries. Where there is total control is freedom of journalism and freedom of establishing or issuing a newspaper. In that part you can say it is the worst. Critical information about the government is available from a number of sources.

The government allows many types of freedom of expression - including attacks on the government and such descriptions of sensitive issues such as corruption - but at the moment they think they have to have this kind of law to control journalists and publishers. The government is very sensitive for these newspapers to touch the top of estate. Talk about whatever you want, but don't go here. There is a red line.

Maadi, 11 April 2000 Alkan Communications Abdel Rahman Omar, C.E.O.

Our largest sector is voice data and video networks. We extend networks to outlying areas, where it is not economically feasible to build landline or microwave systems. There is nothing on the way to these remote areas and it would not be cost effective to use anything else than satellite. The only thing these outlying reaches need is an earth station. No construction, GSM poles or microwave. We can have them in operation in a week that will cover voice, data and video.

The government is per se not involved. What used to be the [telecommunications] company became a company in its own right. Whoever meets customer demand will survive.

Freedom of speech Omar: I lived in Saudi Arabia when they tried to ban satellite dishes, but it was difficult to enforce. Any political organisation will have to be forced to offer these services. They simply can not stop it. The role of the Egyptian government is mainly to regulate and monitor rather than prohibit. They are participating in the process.

There is no doubt that sooner or later free broadcasting will be allowed. It is a matter of time. No power on earth can stop something that is popular and has a market demand. Relatively simple equipment is needed, which is already present in Egypt. All that is needed is the expertise as to where to direct the dish, and you are in business. An earth station can be set up within a week and telephone, data and video will be available. Television is the cheapest. It is only one way, and needs no ground station. I cannot say if these developments will have a spillover effect, liberalising the printed press as well.

Mohandeseen 20 April 2000 Egyptian Space Communications Company (ESC) Hossam Ali, Sales & Marketing manager

We are licensed to sell VSAT - Very Small Aperture Terminal - servers , but Telecom Egypt does the billing. Equipment, installation and operation must conform to Telecom Egypt criteria. We supply monthly reports to them so that they can do the billing.

VSAT Voice Service is used where there is no infrastructure. Like oil companies in the desert or remote cities like Sharm El Sheikh, St. Catherine, Hurgadha or Toshka. We have customers like IDSC - the Information Decision Support Centre and the National Bank of Egypt. Private companies include Assyout cement, Schlamberger, Halliburtion, National Societé Royal and MobiNil.

Oil companies need this service to connect remote drilling stations with the labs in Cairo. Tests can thus be analysed in Cairo and sent back for execution. Also Internet with email is available. Besides voice, of course. We install it, and then inform Telecom Egypt.

Freedom of speech There is no interception of the data. We monitor the link, of course, but we are not tapping the data or even the voice. We monitor for billing purposes, where, when and what duration calls have. These data we collect and send to Egypt Telecom for billing. They do not know the content of the transmissions. The VSAT service is not available for individuals. VSAT is very expensive, USD $ 30 000 to 40 000.

Our licence is for Egypt only. Like if some multinational company wants to be interregional, it is reviewed case by case. We must ask for an official letter of request that we forward to Egypt Telecom. They have to approve. It is illegal to import or possess VSAT equipment without a licence. Even with a licensed company like ours. I have to go to the customs when we receive equipment from Japan. Everything is under control.

Garden City, 14 May 2000 Cairo Times Hisham Kassem, Publisher

Cairo Times is an English-language weekly printed in the Freezone in Nasr City. Due to problems of registering a press license in Egypt, the paper is part of the "Cyprus press". The Cyprus press is a denominator for all publications registered abroad, regardless whether they are registered in Cyprus or not.

Cairo Times have to submit their blueprints to the censor's office prior to publication, and have had several issues banned. The censored articles are available from Cairo times' website. Mr. Kassem is also a board member of the Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights. Everybody's phones are being tapped. The government has fortunately decided not to tamper with the web. A few years ago, my mail used to come in a plastic bag. I called up security and told them that if they at least had the decency to reseal it, I wasn't going to anything. They stopped tearing up the mail. So I was happy with that. Though I think it is an invasion of my private life.

Freedom of speech On one hand you have the satellite city for broadcasting and on the other hand you have the Ministry of Interior trying to subject publishers to register with it as if they were common criminals or ex cons. I heard that there are 35 publications being harassed in the Freezone [Government area for printing]. They are staying clear from me. And of the 35 publications none has made a noise, or said anything. We are left largely alone because Cairo Times fight back any harassment.

The example of Al Arabi is typical. When they hired editor Gamal Fahmi, [the magazine] was presented with a bill of 600 000 pounds from the Al-Ahram printing house. When he was fired, the bill was delayed.

Part II: Topics

Satellite Abu Se'da: Egyptians can be seen on Al-Jazira now, which they couldn't before.

Omar: Broadcasting to other countries is regulated by international law. However, it is difficult to monitor and enforce. In effect, anyone can receive from wherever. There is a black / grey market where satellite equipment is either smuggled or produced locally to bypass Telecom Egypt and the Ministry of Information.

Ali: Satellite dishes are receive only. Anybody can get that cheap. Dishes are also produced locally. A dish costs anything between USD $ 800 - 2000. Some relatives of mine have two dishes and two receivers, set for the C and the Ku band. There is not much they cannot receive. Not everybody needs VSAT.

Kassem: To have a dish does not mean political information. You get the whole spectre. Only some channels, like El Jazira, really annoys the government. The other channels CNN, BBC may be an annoyance when it comes to [Air Egypt's] flight 990, but normally they have minimal coverage of Egypt. The main problem with the satellite channels is that they expose Egyptian television. The cost is less than banning it completely. It is only fundamentalist or countries with a total media black out that does this. Starting media city was a Ministry of Information attempt to attract investments. Jordan and Kuwait announced they were starting up media cities and Egypt joined the race. Then they come up with all this ethnical professional standards

Internet Abu Se'da: the entire Internet in Egypt goes through a government server. Until now there has been no censorship, and there is a chance for freedom of expression in Egypt. The Muslim Brotherhood, Islamic groups and the Human Rights movements are all present on the Internet with their own web pages.

Kassem: The internet is the most important satellite technology. Satellite television is about what sells, but the internet belongs to the people. For example, even the five permanent members of the security council had to back down following the internet campaign against landmines. The internet is individualism while satellites are corporate. I am on an e-group now passing information along that we get from the international press.

Cellular Abu Se'da: Cellular has increased people's ability to communicate with each other

Kassem: Sometimes, if we don't want to break the news of the meeting we have, we not only shut off the phones, but take out the batteries as well. There is technology to monitor phones and the Egyptian government has it. Other times we arrange a meeting place, and move from there to somewhere in the open.

Emergency law Abu Se'da: The emergency law is applied all the time to all sectors. The government can sensor according to this law, even if it is not allowed in the constitution. They have not done this yet, but the newspapers know that the government can do it. For instance in my recent case, when I was charged for accepting foreign funding by the Egyptian government when I was in Paris. It was also based on the emergency law, and I was transferred to the highest military court. We fight against this - that civilians can be referred to military courts, and that the government holds people for long periods of time without having being tried by law.

Amir: The emergency law has been in effect since 1910. It has just stopped for six months, I think. It is applied to all sectors. The difference between military courts and civilian courts is that the military court's decision cannot be appealed. It gives the government two options. It varies on level, type and publicity.

Government attitude towards satellite technology Abu Se'da: There is a limited governmental control. This is why the new technologies support the human rights and the movement of the people. The government couldn't stop the information highway, as we now have many channels of communications. Email, fax, mobile and satellite channels. In Syria they tried to ban access to the Internet. So people called Lebanon, and connected to an Internet server there. It is perhaps more expensive, but it is the way it works.

Salem: The government did not have a choice about allowing satellite technology. This is the New World, where no one can allow or disallow. It is a question of the market. We are acting like good consumers in the open market. It is not about freedom. Egypt started early to open the market for these things.

Omar: There has been a global trend towards deregulation. It was clear from experience in other countries. Governmental institutions proved inflexible. They were not meeting customer demand, and could see the international trend sweeping over the United States, Europe and then the Middle East. We are just a couple of years behind. We are in the initial stage of deregulation. The telecommunication network is well built out. It uses the same technology as broadcasting, and we can switch just like that. TV and video is still a Ministry of Information monopoly, and we are not allowed to broadcast news or movies. The government has drawn a solid line between broadcasting and telecommunication, while there is little actual difference between them.

Ali: Telecom Egypt (before Arento) controls all communication through a regulatory board. They are responsible for frequency bands and licenses to the network. They offer licenses for mobile phone networks, pay phones and VSAT applications. Broadcasting does not belong to Egypt Telecom. This is the responsibility of the Ministry of Information. Satellite television is only one way. We are doing inter-reactive services. Kassem: The government tolerates the satellite technology because it is the elites who use it. The only threat to the government is financial. They needed the technology to attract investors. All countries have a mobile network. In any event, it will take time before the population learns to use the new technology. Plus it is a sure way to step out of history. Even the French, who were against the internet, had to use it in the end. They have no option.

Development of Free Speech Abu Se'da: There is definitely more freedom of speech now than it was ten years ago. There are more channels of communication. If you want to contact me later, you can give me a call on the phone or the mobile, send me an email or a fax.

Salem: If we are talking about newspapers, the situation ten years ago was the same as now. If we are talking about civil society, there was a syndicate movement in the 1980's. Lawyers, doctors and engineers. Real freedom of speech fought by struggle. And that is why the government by their won tactics decided to destroy these movements.And they succeeded during the 1990's to do so. Also, there is the press law that came in the late 90's.

But it must be said that the 80's and 90's were much better than the 70's and the 60's. At least now we have the Cyprus newspapers (Unlicensed Egyptian publications that are based in Cyprus). The Internet will force open new space for freedom of speech, but at the same time this technology is only for the elites and the rich. They might allow this kind of technology because they know from the beginning that there are 50 percent illiteracy and the ones enjoying this technology of communication is not more than ten percent of the population. I have the freedom to meet with you and tell you everything, but we are doing this in a closed room with an airconditioner. That is what I mean, the elites are dealing with the elites. And the government understands the game very well and it will not pass ten percent of the population.

Omar: There has been better access to information with satellite technology, but I am not sure whether freedom of speech has increased as a result of it. There is more freedom of speech today than ten years ago, but the effect is very limited. I can only compare to Canada [Where he has lived for the past 30 years]. There I can offer a suggestion and expect some kind of reaction. Here I am not so sure that the action materialises. In other words: I can talk - but so what?

Ali: Freedom of speech has increased all over the world because of the developments in satellite communication. Satellite dishes have not really increased freedom in Egypt, because they are receive only. Mobiles are difficult to track, and have made life easier. It's quicker, and therefore accelerates business.

Kassem: The government was more tolerant ten years ago, but there is more freedom of speech today. The government had more economic control then. Before they were running everything, and could be more tolerant. There was Cold War money being pumped in, as the government could not be allowed to collapse. Now it is an open economy and the state can no longer be tolerant in order to stay in power.

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